Fishing is central to livelihoods across the Amazon, both as a source of animal protein and as a key component of economic activity. Fishers’ knowledge can provide important information about changes in fish abundance. While scientific sources do not have sufficient baseline data, fishers’ knowledge extends reliably into the past. Local fishers can provide crucial information about habitats for fish reproduction, migration, and fisheries.

Abundant fish
Despite some declines, larger fish such as Peacock bass are still abundant in the Tapajós River.

Changes to fish populations
However, fishers are seeing a decrease in catches of some large commercial fish and an increase in catches of smaller and less valued fish.

Protected areas
There is some indication that protected areas that include people, such as the Extractive Reserve and National Forest, may help to maintain populations of larger and valuable fish.

Vulnerabilities
Despite the prevalence and biodiversity of fish in the Amazon River Basin, there are many threats to fish populations. Fish are impacted by climatic changes causing long or unusual periods of drought. They are also impacted by human activities such as mines, hydroelectric dams, and excessive fishing pressure.

Human impacts
Local, artisanal fisheries in Caboclos communities are highly impacted by industrial and hydroelectric developments that impact fish. Changes to fish populations impact local food security and fisheries sustainability.

In the Athabasca watershed, encroaching industries have caused declines to fish populations. Further, commercial fishing by local outfitters is making it difficult for local people to access the fish that remain.

Exploitative fishing practices
In Lesser Slave Lake, species have been eliminated through exploitative fishing practices. For instance, the small mesh nets used for herring have removed many species along with the herring.

“The lake, the Lesser Slave Lake… I have seen big changes in my time. I saw it go from a productive lake to a sucker polluted lake. They wiped out everything, and how they wiped out all the different species was they had mink ranches along the lake. And they were harvesting herring out of that lake. Herring is a pretty small fish, so in order to catch it; you need to have a small mesh net. Well, when you have those kinds of nets set out in the lake, you catch everything. That’s how they ended up destroying all the native species of that lake.” – Elder, Sucker Creek First Nation

Outfitters have priority
Denesuline in northern Saskatchewan describes how even when fish are plentiful, it is difficult for local people to harvest them. Instead, it is easier for outfitters to access fishing licenses.

“Money controls everything now. Outfitters used to hire our local people but they don’t anymore. Outfitters buy licenses and are allowed to fish all over our lake; we seem to have no say. If we try to ask for a license on our own lake, we are told someone or some outfitters have the license to fish on that area of the lake. No consultation with us, the locals who have [been] living here for long time. If people are not actively fishing with that license in two years, it gets taken back. We want to be able to fish but we are not a priority. The government favors them. It belongs to us but I don’t think it actually does belong to us now.” – AJ

Industrial and commercial activities thus threaten both fish populations and local access to the fish that remain.

“…the cisco fish is not around. The little white fish, they have a slavey name for it; they’re not around. And we haven’t seen grayling here at this spot. We have not seen the walleye…not up here. And we have not seen loche… and we haven’t seen jackfish yet. Maybe they’re late…”
– Leon Andrew

Fish distribution is experienced differently by different people across the Great Bear watershed. While it is clear that there are changes to the fish populations, some harvesters notice spawning changes while others pay attention to altered fish runs.

Across the different reports, it is clear that there is now less certainty about when to catch certain species. This makes it difficult for communities to rely on fish as a stable source of food.

Which fish are decreasing, and where?
In the Mackenzie River Delta, some harvesters are noticing lower harvest rates for broad whitefish and burbot (loche).

“…As I was saying before this was a strange year… not only [for] people here in the delta… in Aklavik, but people that were at Shingle. …before I could… easily come home with 400 herring, salmon, whatever. [but] This year, talking to fellow harvesters they never even got 20! … Whitefish … is good but for char… we’re … allowed to harvest up to 90, we only got 6 …. the weather was so damp, so rainy, so wet. … windy, … it’s too windy to set your net … . Plus the water was dirty.” – Michelle Gruben

Similarly, some fish are not as abundant in Tulita, where fish are also noticeably smaller.

Up the Deh Cho, harvesters note decreases in grayling and suckers. These changes are attributed to ongoing seismic testing for oil and gas in the 70s, 80s, and 90s:

“A tugboat pushing three or fours barges would stop every kilometre or so and set off an explosion—blasting. Each blast sent water shooting up above the trees. There were many dead fish floating down the river.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant

At Fort Simpson in the 1960s, one community member describes the grayling, saying the Deh Cho would “boil with their activity as they jumped for bugs to eat.” Now, he says, “now you are lucky if you get one.”

Which fish are increasing, and where?
In the Mackenzie River Delta, coney and chum salmon have been observed more regularly in the past five years.

“Well back when I was a kid we used to get herring […] galore. Both in the spring and fall. […] … I don’t think they even run… here anymore. …either that or they… run at different times… . Just don’t know. And we used to get really few coney. […] Now a coney run is quite common. You get … the one in … late June early July. […] And … then you’ll get another one in the fall. […]. When I was a kid it was kind of something to get a …coney here. Probably only caught one … or a couple a week… […]. … I moved away from here in ‘77 and … several years later … I hear my dad… fished like 6, 700 coneys in the fall and I was surprised you know?” – Harry Carmichael

In Tulita, Arctic char and salmon are starting to come up the river.

These days, you can now catch jackfish (pike), coney, cod, loche, and pickerel in the Deh Cho. Salmon is also increasing:

“[W]e know for a fact that within the last five years there has been a change with the salmon. Where let’s say fifteen years ago you would be lucky to harvest two to three salmon, but today we’re harvesting five to ten so the numbers are going up, and we’re learning a lot more about the salmon and how global warming and chemicals in the water might be affecting them. It helps to know what’s going on out there in different seasons of the year, and we know this because like I said there’s five to ten more salmon coming up our rivers than there was twenty years ago.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant

One person mentioned that Tathlina Lake is home to a population of unique whitefish:

“The bigger whitefish, those ones are like prehistoric whitefish, they’ve got big scales. They’re like old fish. I don’t know where they come from but you catch them in Tathlina.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant”

What is causing the changes?
With increased temperatures and high waters after heavy rainfall, fish are difficult to catch as they stay near the bottom of the river.

“You get a lot less fish when the water is high.” – Harry Carmichael

“Weather get[s] hot we have to stead[ily] look at [the] net. And even … fish got soft because the water was too hot […] And then when [there’s] no fish,… when it’s too hot. The elders said … they go to the bottom … to keep cool.” – Emma Kay

Many community members echo concerns about the warming water temperatures that come with climate change.

“[T]here’s a number of places where people still harvest fish, and we’re just not seeing the numbers we saw 25 years ago. Which brings us again to the decline in fish that were once there… [The decline is in] mostly all kinds of fish, because it’s mostly due likely to climate change, and it could be toxicities in the water.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant

Increasing numbers of beavers have resulted in blocked waterways.

“I think you leave it up to nature, but I think… we need to do more monitoring and I guess that… the beaver and I think too the biggest factor because they dammed the little creeks for all the fish we used to get, you know our fish used to come and they feed on all those little creeks and then all those little creeks are dammed now so there’s no, you know no minnows and stuff that they go there to feed on there so I think that’s probably a good reason for a number of fish we catch to be down.” – William Storr

While fishing is still an important part of livelihoods and culture in the region, the reduction in fish catch may also be because people are fishing less.

Aside from a few species that are appearing more frequently, many people are noticing fish populations declining or moving to different locations. These changes are attributed to a number of causes, including changes to water depth and temperature, forest fires, and changing community values regarding fish.

Good places to fish
Many places are still providing good fish harvests.

“In the past, people came to Artillery Lake in the fall to do a lot of fishing and they stock up in the fall time. Timber Bay is a good place to fish.” – Joseph Catholique

“There is really good fishing at the mouth of the Lockhart River.” – Ron Fatt

More common fish
In other places, fish populations are changing.

While coney are declining near Yellowknife, harvesters in the Łutsel K’e are seeing them more frequently.

“Coney—we started getting Coneys around here now, last spring, a guy came over said he caught a Coney, you want some? I said yaaa, I’ll have some Coney.” – Łutsel K’e Dene First Nation Elder

In Łutsel K’e, new species of fish are also appearing:

“There is a different kind of whitefish in Artillery Lake. Different from Whitefish Lake. It’s like whitefish, but the scales are reddish.” – Albert Boucher and Sarahzine Basil

Meanwhile, Yellowknife is seeing more salmon.

“Salmon—I caught salmon this fall. About 30 years ago when my dad was still trapping we caught some salmon and this summer again we caught them … on the Slave River.” – Deninu Kue First Nation elder

Despite these increases, fish populations are declining in many areas due to a number of causes.

Low water levels in the Slave River area
As water levels become lower in the Slave River and surrounding creeks, harvesters are noticing that fish are not moving to their spawning habitat. This may lead to decreases in fish populations.

“Sometimes the fish can’t move up creeks and small rivers along the Slave River to spawn because of low water” – Elder, Smith’s Landing First Nation

Warming temperatures
While overfishing may be causing declines in coney populations near Yellowknife, warming temperatures may also be a factor.

For example, unseasonably warm temperatures may have caused a die-off of fish near Yellowknife at Wool Bay:

“All the fish died in the winter, in the spring time there was a lot of dead fish on the shore/lake floating on Wool Bay.” – Yellowknives Dene First Nation Elder

Forest fires in the Tłı̨chǫ region
In the Tłı̨chǫ region, Elders and fishers are concerned that the smoke and ash from the 2014 first fire have impacted the health of the łıwe (fish), causing them to be smaller.

Community respect for fish
Some elders think a potential cause to changes in fish populations is a lack of respect for the fish. In the Tłı̨chǫ region, Elders spoke about how fish are not being respected the way that they should be. A common phrase they used when talking about respecting fish is that “today everything is different.”

Community members report that there are still many fish in upper Kátł’odeh. However, some have noticed changes:

“My cousin before he passed away he used to set nets on the river and right by the mouth of that creek he used to catch lots of fish and I think two years before he passed on he hardly caught any… My cousin told me that just spring time only then there is lots of people fishing when the water is high but now nobody even bothers even though they fish they don’t get nothing and they used to catch huge jackfish on that creek now there is no water up there so how can you, you catch fish because mainly we catch our jackfish from that creek.” – Elaine Lamalice

Even where fish are abundant, lower water has made it more difficult to harvest using nets and other traditional methods.

In the Liard River, the biggest change is that bottom feeders, such as suckers, are no longer observed.

“In the future, my grandchildren might not have fish.” – Weera Suriach, Baan Doom Yai

Dams and climate impacts are affecting fish migration on the Mekong and its tributaries. Both the Pak Mun and Ban Ot dams have negatively impacted fisheries, though the specific species impacted are different in the Mekong and Sebok rivers.

Fishers describe a decrease in fish since the late 1980s due to the construction of the Pak Mun and Ban Ot dams. However, other factors also impact fish numbers. For instance, fish are more abundant in the year following a heavy rainy season. Where the river is shallower, less large fish are observed, especially in the dry season. Finally, other factors such as overfishing and habitat destruction are leading to fish declines.

Due to short fishing periods, it is crucial for fishers to know when migrations will arrive. Fishers need time to prepare their boats and gear. Advance warning is key to ensuring healthy fishing economies and survival of local peoples.

There are a number of indicators of fish migration known to local people:

Presence of birds
Fish migrations are associated with the arrival of specific bird species. Interestingly, the same species of fish are indicated by the presence of different birds in the Mekong and Sesan rivers.

For example, fish species pa soi and pa tep are indicated by the arrival of birds specific to each region:

On the Mekong River in Stung Treng Province and below the Khone Falls in southern Laos

• Arrival of nok sida (river terns) and pa kha (Irrawaddy dolphins)

On the Mekong River in northeastern Thailand:

• Arrival of leo daeng’ (Brahimany kites)

On the Sesan River in Veun Sai District, Ratanakiri Province:

• Arrival of nok kao (doves) and nok katen (kingfishers)

Weather conditions
Local fishers also indicate how weather patterns correlate with fish migrations.

For example, locals living in Veun Sai District, Ratanakiri Province, northeastern Cambodia correlate pa soi migrations with cloudy periods.

Others observe that pa soi migrate downriver and pa souay upriver in the Sesan when it is rainy and the water is turbid. Pa kno (snakeheads) would also migrate up small streams running into the Sesan River during these rainy periods.

Just below the Khone Falls, in southern Laos, on the border with Cambodia, fishers anticipate migrations when they observe red algae on rocks.

As with the birds, people in different places use varying indicators to track the same fish migrations.

A variety of fish species are harvested across the Peace River watershed, including lake trout, bull trout (Dolly Varden char), rainbow trout, lake whitefish, Rocky Mountain whitefish, northern pike (jackfish), grayling, and burbot (freshwater ling cod).

However, historical and current influences have made fish less plentiful in the Peace River watershed. Changes associated with the fur trade, settlement, and resource extraction, including forestry and hydro-electric development, have had significant impacts on the fish. Furthermore, recreational use has led to a decline in fish stocks in tributary rivers like Halfway and Moberly.

Sport fishing
Highway 29 runs the entire length of the Peace between Hudson Hope and Fort St. John, and several boat launches make the river easily accessible to sport fishers. Backcountry roads have opened access to more remote fishing spots. Fish may be declining due to overfishing.

Harvesters noticed significant changes to fish harvests during the 2016 Eagle Island Fish Camp. After an entire afternoon using two different fishing nets of up to 100 feet each, only two fish were caught. Another two were caught by line and lures after a full day of fishing.

Hydro-electric development
Fish have significantly declined since the WAC Bennett Dam was built on the Peace River in the 1960s and the Peace Canyon Dam in 1980.

Ironically, the best fishing on the Peace River is upstream just below the Peace Canyon dam, but fishing is banned there.

Effects are worse downstream
The number of fish seems to diminish further downstream. In tributary rivers like the Moberly, Halfway, Pine, Sukunka, Murray, Burnt, and Wolverine, it is common knowledge among local fishers that fish populations are in rapid decline.

Declining salmon numbers is a critical issue in the Peel watershed, especially in the Stewart River. Salmon numbers have been declining since 2009-10, leading to a ban on salmon harvest in 2014-15.

A number of different factors are impacting fish populations in the Peel River:

• Changes in water levels have resulted in limited access to traditional fishing areas.
• Warmer water conditions have led fish to stay deeper. This has made them more difficult to harvest. When they are harvested, fish are mushier than normal.
• Freeze-up and break-up conditions are changing harvesting patterns, making it more difficult to catch sufficient fish.

What about the other fish?
While there are more pike in the Stewart River and McQuesten Lake, harvesters have observed:

• Fewer fish overall in Hanson Lakes
• Fewer pike and trout in Ethel Lake
• Average numbers of trout in Mayo and Ethel Lakes

Due to these changes, people are not harvesting enough fish to meet their needs.

Fishing is a key source of dietary protein for many fishers throughout the Amazon River Basin, including communities along the Tocantins and Tapajós rivers. Food security in these areas is therefore dependent on the continued health of many species of fish.

Current impacts of mining
While fish are still safe to eat in many areas, mining impacts the upper reaches of the Tapajós river, with possible mercury contamination in piscivorous fish. Consumption of these fish has impacts on the health of communities along the riverside.

Future impacts of dams
A dam such as the São Luiz do Tapajós would significantly impact the health of fish. Just below the dam, water would become stagnant and enriched with toxic gases, resulting in unhealthy fish. Toxins could also cause mass mortality of fish. It is key that hydroelectric developments consider these impacts on local communities that rely on fish for food security, as well as economic sustainability.

“Traditional Ecological Knowledge, stewardship, and harvesting practices based on Dene Laws and values are inseparable from health and wellness. The people, land, lakes, river, animals, and fish are interdependent. Some of the interviewers talk about unhealthy and deformed fish. Other animals depend on fish for their existence. When one aspect of the life cycle is destroyed or misused, there is a domino effect. Imbalance occurs that leads to sickness and ill-health. The people are profoundly impacted on many levels” – Vice Chief Jose Tsannie, Chief Bartholomew Tsannie, Rosalie Tsannie-Burseth, Prince Albert Grand Council, and Herman Michell, 2019

Increasing concerns with fish health in the Athabasca River due to mercury and oil sands pollution have resulted in reduced fish consumption. Pressure on fish resources led to the extirpation of lake trout from Lesser Slave Lake in the 1930s, and people do not want to see this process repeated with other species.

Community-based monitoring programs, such as one run by the Mikisew Cree, track changes according to Indigenous knowledge and scientific indicators of fish health.

Increasing numbers of fish deformities
Since the development of the Athabasca oil sands, the Mikisew Cree community-based monitoring program has noticed an increase in fish deformities. These include pimples and skin tags on the flesh, pushed-in faces, sores, tumors, red scales, and disproportionately skinny bodies.

Elders and harvesters describe deformities in their own words:

“I’ve been fishing all my life. At one time, I caught a fish with 2 mouths. I gave it to Steve. That was years ago, about 5 years ago. 2 mouths. A fish. So now I can tell you if one is sick or deformed. Some fish I caught, they have lumps all over their body—red lumps. Those I don’t bother with, destroy them. I don’t even feed them to the dogs. Some of them, they are abnormal, they look like whitefish, but they have a big hump back. They look like those fish that eat people, piranhas. They look something like that, deformed fish.” – Mikisew Elder

“There are different fish now and deformed ones too. I have seen some fish with two heads too…About four years ago, Jules and myself set a net out on the lake, we caught a small trout and it’s back was bent in a weird way and that is the second time I saw strange fish like that from the lake….” – Mercredi, Prince Albert Grand Council Report, 2018

“Some fish are different. Some have scars. One time we ate fish and it tasted different. One time I caught a fish and it had something inside its stomach. They were round. I threw that fish away. That was by Gilly’s Island.” – PJD, Prince Albert Grand Council Report, 2018

“There are boils on fish. I caught some trout and it had boils. White fish never used to have boils but they do now. If fish have boils, they are thrown away.” – AJ, Prince Albert Grand Council Report, 2018

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Incidences of deformed fish have led to community-based monitoring of concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), which can cause tumors and lesions in fish.

High mercury levels
Fish advisories from the Government of Alberta warn of high mercury levels in Lake Athabasca. Mercury warnings apply not only to fish but also to gull and tern eggs.

In addition, community-based monitoring reveals high mercury levels in minnows nearer the oil sands. Mercury levels decline downstream the Athabasca River, with the exception of Lake Mamawi.

Compounding issues
Issues are compounded by the fact that Indigenous peoples’ needs are not prioritized:

“When they had mink farms and fox farms back before the 1950s, they were allowed to fish all year round. The Indians could not fish for food to feed their families but the mink farmers could take as much fish as they wanted.” – Lesser Slave Lake Elder

Tracking fish health is imperative for remote communities that rely on fish for food security, especially with rising food costs.

“In the Deh Cho, the land that we live[in] is like the bread and butter for us, because it clothes us and it feeds us and it heats us…. we’re really worried about it because when we did studies on the water and the fish we saw a lot of mercury. But even the scientists today say, what is contributing to the mercury in the fish? Is it the climate change, is it the permafrost thawing? They’re still figuring it out.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant

Fish is central to livelihoods in the Great Bear watershed, so changes to fish health are deeply concerning. In some regions, fish are still safe to eat and are a healthy component of many people’s diets. However, the fish in the Mackenzie River and Mackenzie Delta have become increasingly unhealthy over the last five to ten years.

Healthy fish
In many parts of the Sahtú, people still actively harvest fish, particularly sahba (lake trout), łue (whitefish), and łuehya (herring or cisco). Some harvesters have never caught an unhealthy fish.

Unhealthy fish in the Mackenzie
Concerns about fish health are of utmost importance across the Great Bear watershed, but especially in the Mackenzie River.

The top indicators of unhealthy fish are soft fish flesh, skinny fish, internal irregularities, external disfigurements, and discolorations. Unhealthy fish may have less fat around their entrails. Some fish contain high numbers of parasites, and others have bad eggs.

One way to determine the health of a fish is to look at its liver:

“If it is red, it is no good…white livers are healthy. The fish will tell you what state your water is in.” – Anonymous Participant, Deh Cho

Concerns with toxins in the fish and fears of making people sick stop harvesters from catching and selling fish:

“…In the summer I make a living off fish, and I don’t wanna be selling bad fish…without myself knowing it… I don’t wanna sell fish to somebody and then have them get sick… You hear them talking about if they’ve got chemicals in them you know and people up the river don’t even like. There’s people up the river buy fish from down here.” – Anonymous Participant, 2016-17 Gwich’in Renewable Resources Board Report

Recent changes to fish in the Mackenzie River Delta
In the Mackenzie River Delta, changes in fish health have been noticed over the last five to ten years:

“….We do see more parasites in the fish at Shingle…people notice more soft skin… like so soft you can’t even cut the darn thing… Salmon I’ve never ever seen any parasites. Char, maybe the odd one, the odd like worm in there. Rarely in whitefish….Loche is got that ugly liver and eggs…” – Michelle Gruben

Warming waters
Elders and harvesters attribute some changes in fish health to warming water temperatures:

“The water is shallower, and warmer and the fish can’t go down to deep, cold water… in the winter the flesh is okay. Cli Lake has good fish—it is deep and cold.” – Anonymous Participant, Deh Cho

Increasing mercury levels
In some regions, the public has been informed of high mercury levels and discouraged from harvesting and eating certain types of fish.

Industrial impacts
Industrial development has detrimental effects on the health of the fish. Near Port Radium, for example, there are five abandoned mine sites and sunken mining equipment in the lake. The river was blasted to make room for a barge to travel to mines. As a result, oil and other contaminants have been observed in the water and are certainly impacting fish.

“Elders discussed various Tłı̨chǫ ‘laws’ that people follow to show respect for fish. Different people have slightly different ways of respecting fish. Respecting fish is part of respecting all beings.” – Jody Pellissey and Allice Legat, Wek’eezhii Renewable Resources Board, 2018

Fish harvest is critical to local livelihoods for the communities of the Great Slave watershed. Active fishers work both summer and winter, contributing a key source of food to communities across the region.

Communities in the region, such as Łutsel K’e, have been researching the health of fish populations for more than two decades.

Unhealthy fish
Key indicators of fish health include fat around the organs, colour of the organs, the firmness of fish flesh, and presence or absence of lesions or cysts. Some unhealthy fish are observed to be skinny, or they may have an unusual color. In Nonacho Lake, for instance, Elders from Łutsel K’e Dene First Nation note how there are “lots of sick fish, the colours are different, they’re blacker.”

Some fish look so strange or unfamiliar that harvesters wish for a camera:

“I think it was Bobby Nitsiza that was telling me that they caught a fish in the net; [and] they have never seen a fish like that before he said. Could be a trout, but they didn’t have a camera so they didn’t take a picture of it. They’ve never seen a fish like that before.” – Charlie Jim Nitsiza, Wek’èezhìi Renewable Resources Board Report, 2018

Changes to loche are key to understanding the health of the water and other local fish. In the Deninu Kue area and around Yellowknife there are many concerns about the health of loche due to eggs that are not ready on time, sores on the bodies of loche, and loche with greenish colored livers.

Regional differences
Local people are aware of locations where fish continue to be healthy. Near Łutsel K’e, for example, the fish in Artillery Lake and Great Slave Lake are considered healthy, while those in other areas such as Stark Lake are known to be unhealthy.

Effects of forest fires
During a review of possible impacts of building an all-season road to Whatì, the Government of the Northwest Territories stated that forest fires “may cause temporary stress to fish populations, … the recent fires [2014] are unlikely to have a lasting effect on fish populations.”

In contrast, Elders and harvesters note how smoke and ash affects both water quality and the health of fish:

“All the burned land flows into the lake in the spring when the snow is melting and there were so many large ashes falling to the lake. The łıwe are being harmed.” – Jimmy Nitsiza, Wek’èezhìi Renewable Resources Board Report, 2018

“Since the 2014 fire, our łıwe are getting smaller. I think it is the smoke and ash. We need to look very close into this.” – Joe Champlain, Wek’èezhìi Renewable Resources Board Report, 2018

Impacts of mines, hydroelectric projects, and other waste
Fish health is also impacted by various mining and hydroelectric projects throughout the region. These projects result in higher mercury levels in fish, as well as changes to the quality of fish flesh. For example:

• Fish in the area around Nonacho Lake are considered “ruined” due to the impacts of the Talston River Hydro Electric Project
• Tailings water may drain into downstream lakes such as Snap Lake and Gahcho Kue
  Abandoned gold mines at Yellowknife on Great Slave Lake are a significant concern due to the presence of arsenic in the water
• Fish in the Lockhart watershed have been impacted by the Gahcho Kue Diamond Mine
• Since the Cosmos satellite crash, fish in the Great Slave and Artillery lakes have become skinnier, with unhealthy stomachs and livers.

In a report from the Akaitcho, community members note how the fish on the south side of the lake are getting worse: softer, slimier, and unhealthy looking. It is important to nearby communities that the polluters of the water should be held accountable.

How are people responding?
Communities are making efforts to monitor fish health, educate about culture, and collect data from visitors. For instance, monitoring through the Ni Hat Ni Program uses a variety of methods of tracking the health of fish including the identification of lesions or abnormalities.

In some regions, harvesters are travelling further and further to find healthy fish. For instance, people in the Yellowknives Dene First Nations are fishing in deep water further away from Yellowknife.

The upper Kátł’odeh continues to be an important site for harvesting. Further north, the river continues to be healthy and pristine.

However, further south, ongoing oil industry, forestry, and chemicals required for farming affects water quality and therefore fish health in the watershed. Toxins drain into creeks and streams, and then they collect in Kátł’odeh.

Decreased access to food
Numbers of unhealthy fish are increasing. As a result, people are losing a significant source of food security.

Issues are compounded by the fact that Indigenous peoples’ needs are not prioritized:

“We go fishing in different areas where there is less activity. There are more and more clear cuts and once that happens the streams and lakes are no good. Pretty soon there will be nothing left. The government doesn’t even care. It’s all about the money. It doesn’t matter if we try and protest. The only thing we can do is go with the flow and try to survive, that is what my dad taught me—go with the flow and try and survive.” – Treaty 8 First Nations of Alberta Workshop participant

Fish are critical for community health and survival.

Concerns with fish health in the Peace River sub-basin are primarily focused on mercury levels. As fish become dangerous for consistent human consumption, Indigenous communities are losing a key source of food and income.

Mercury levels impact fish consumption
Due to increasing mercury levels, people are less willing to eat fish from the Peace and surrounding rivers.

“Most people don’t fish in the Peace anymore because they’re scared to eat that fish because of the mercury.” – Thomas Hale, SFN fisher (2016 Treaty 8 Tribal Association of BC Report)

In some areas, mercury levels are tracked and well known. For example, Health Canada has put out an advisory to limit the consumption of fish from the Williston Reservoir, which flows into the Peace River.

Further research on mercury needed
Despite the issues with mercury, no studies have yet been conducted on mercury levels of fish in the Peace tributaries. Considering that most fish species are migratory, community members want to know if mercury-contaminated fish are making it up the tributaries to bodies of water such as Moberly Lake.

Fish health and Treaty rights
Understanding mercury levels in fish is an issue of Treaty rights. According to Health Canada guidelines, fish containing mercury may be considered safe to eat once per week, or once per month for high-risk groups. However, many people along the Peace have traditionally relied on fish as a main source of food – and still do so today. So, unless mercury levels in fish are reduced, Indigenous peoples along the Peace are unable to exercise their Treaty rights and ensure a sustainable source of food.

If the Site C dam is to be completed, mercury levels will increase in the Peace River, further threatening food sovereignty and treaty rights.

Across the Peel watershed, people are attentive to the health of fish in specific locations.

Region- and species-specific knowledge of fish health
Up the Peel in Nacho Nyak Dun, people have noticed differences in both trout and pike populations across the watershed.

• Trout – Trout populations in both Ethel Lake and Mayo Lake are fairly stable, but the trout in Ethel Lake have some parasites.
• Pike – Pike meat is becoming softer and mushier in warmer waters. In McQuesten Lake, pike also have small spots on their bellies in the warmer months of June and July.

Further north, closer to where the Peel meets the Mackenzie, many people still report catching healthy fish. However, a number of indicators show that fish are unhealthy. People have found white spots on the livers of fish, as well as scars or scabs on the fish skin. Others have found tumors and growths, including on the faces of fish.

“The health of the waters and rivers is inseparable from the health and wellness of Denesuline Peoples that live in the Athabasca region. Water is life. Without water, there is no life. Dene peoples believe that all humans come from water. It has spirit. It is alive. It must be respected. Humans and animals depend on water for existence. Water is a gift from the Great Spirit. Dene peoples have been protectors of their waters and lands from the beginning of time.” – Chief Jose Tsannie, Chief Bartholomew Tsannie, Rosalie Tsannie-Burseth, Prince Albert Grand Council
and Herman Michell (2018 Report)

Despite the importance of water to life for Dene peoples, the health of the water in the Athabasca watershed is declining due to industrial and hydroelectric developments.

Clean water, healthy bodies
Some Denesuline Elders and land users at Hatchet Lake First Nation in Wollaston Lake, Saskatchewan report that people can drink the water without getting sick.

“I still drink water from this lake. I never heard of anyone [getting] sick from this lake.” – AJ, Denesuline

Toxic water downstream
Other Denesuline in the same region report increased sediment in the water and some contamination toward the west side of Lake Athabasca. These impacts result from mining and uranium tailings seepage and other changes due to upstream hydro development projects in BC.

Downstream, toxins have also been observed by the Misikew Cree and Athabasca Chipewyan First Nations Community Based Monitoring program. Toxins are attributed to the development of the Athabasca oil sands, as well as the Bennett Dam on the Peace River, which has impacted the water at the Peace Athabasca Delta.

“When [the] Bennet Dam started, losing the water, there’s no more fresh water that comes in. Like every 4 years we used to have fresh water. We used to have ice jams, and clear out all the bad water, clean everything out, strain it out and then clean water would come in. We don’t see that anymore after the Bennet Dam. Before that, we used to have lots of clean water that would come in. You don’t have to pack water like today. Out there you got fresh water all the time and that’s what.” – Misikew Elder

Community-based monitoring uses the Canada Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) Water Quality Index (WQI) Calculator, a mathematical modelling tool that summarizes complex water quality data into a simple index that can be used to assess water quality. It is a reliable, rapid, and cost-efficient way to understand potential contaminants of concern and the impacts of the water on human, animal, and plant life.

A 2017 study showed that overall water quality in the Athabasca was “fair” (not “good”), with a rise in aluminum, as well as higher levels of iron, manganese, and phosphorus than are recommended. A number of test sites were also shown to have “poor” water quality.

Purchase water or get sick
People remember a time when the water was safe to drink. But now, water from rivers and muskeg is known to make people sick, driving people to purchase water instead.

“To me there has been lots of changing going on to the lake as a result of oil and gas and other things. The water is just not nice anymore. I don’t drink my water. I always just buy the water where it is filtered. The creeks up south – the rivers – I don’ t ever drink that water either. It’s not like the old days where you could take water from any creek and just starting drinking it or making tea. It’s not the same. If you want to get sick, drink it.” – Lesser Slave Lake Elder

“The muskeg water used to be just like spring water from the fridge. It used to be just good water. But no one drinks that muskeg water anymore but we all buy water now. I don’t know what’s going on.” – Lesser Slave Lake Elder

Clarity is a sign of clean water, but not a guarantee
Sometimes clean, clear water can be a sign that it is safe to drink. However, due to persistent toxins in the water, even clarity is not a guarantee of safe water. Drinking water from the land is understood to be a risk:

“You can find some water that is good in certain areas but you really have to know what is going on upstream. You can look at it and know if its ok. In some places its very clear, you can take a chance.” – Lesser Slave Lake Elder

Future water health
Community members recognize that industry has long-term impacts on the water. They, therefore, express concerns over how current developments will affect them in the future.

“If we mapped those areas where there is still good drinking water, would it help to protect those areas? If they want to clear-cut, there is nothing we could do. If it is slated to be clear-cut, they are just going to do it. There is nothing we can do about it. It doesn’t matter if we have mapped it to be protected or not. You can protest but it’s too late. If you wanted to protect it you [had] to do it 5-10 years ahead. Those companies plan 5-10 years ahead. If there are nice creeks coming out of those forested areas, it doesn’t matter, they are going to cut it anyway.” – Lesser Slave Lake Elder

Water quality across the Great Bear region varies. Local people know where to access safe drinking water, but they express concerns with contaminants from upstream and local sources.

Healthy drinking water from clean sources
Community members from Deh Cho express that other than the Mackenzie River itself, most water sources across the region provide pure, high-quality water.

“There’s not too many places I wouldn’t drink water from in our territory. We have the spring behind the mountain, which would be an awesome place to get water from because it’s glacial fed, which is probably some of the purest water you could drink. And pretty much anywhere there’s a tributary flowing into the Nahanni River, you could pretty much dip your cup into and drink.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant, 2017

Changing water quality
The health of the Mackenzie River has been changing over time. Community members have observed changes in the color of the water, as well as changes to the plant life along the river banks:

“Every year is changing. Everything [is] changing, even the water someday. I could see it from the air when I go on a plane… See some lakes are just black or brown water. Everything is changing – we used to have good water. You know down the bank you see all those willows. It never used to be like that. White river, the boats used to land right down the bank from the Northern. Even those days they call banana boats. Schooners and that, they’d land on the bank. You can’t do that now… Too [many] willows, and ah, just like, mostly sandbars like that all over. Even up the river is like that. – Emma Kaye, in her home in Fort McPherson, Nov. 17, 2016

As a result of these changes, fewer people are drinking water from the Mackenzie River:

“Even about 20 years ago, back in the 60s, when I was on the river… at that time we used to take water right from the river, and I used to get sick from it and I didn’t know what it was. I had stomach problems and then I found out it was actually water from the Mackenzie River, and more and more I talked to people around the river, they were saying they do notice the water quality on the Mackenzie. It’s not as crystal clear as it used to be, it’s a marshy kind of green, and you see a lot of muck at the bottom, and slime on the rocks, and you never used to have that before. The quality of the water has changed drastically.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant, 2017

Concerns with contaminants
Concerns about current and future water quality reference contaminants such as mercury, lead, and zinc. Community members expressed a need to learn more about the causes of these contaminants, as well as what can be done to protect the future health of the rivers.

Of primary concern across the Great Bear watershed are contaminants from industry and developments upstream, including the oil sands, dams, and mines.

Community research done by the Gwich’in Renewable Resources Board (2018) and the Fisheries Joint Management Committee (2018) also found community concerns with local contaminants, including from the sewage facility by Navy Road in Inuvik, garbage dumps, beaver dams, and goose/swan guano.

The Sahtu Renewable Resources Board also heard from community members how the health of the land affects the health of the water:

“That little lake near the community is getting polluted because of the runoff from the land to that little lake.” SRRB 2017-18 Report

Water quality depends on where you are in the Great Slave watershed. In places where the water is still of excellent quality, people would like to keep it this way.

Changing health of water
Across the Great Slave watershed, there are numerous concerns about the water not being as drinkable in many areas as it used to be. Community members notice increased growth of algae and the negative effects of industry.

“Algae is growing in areas where [the]river water has gone down to expose the river bottom, and near the river edges and on rocks and reefs that are exposed.” – Yellowknives Dene First Nations.

“Like the elders say, when you take a part of something—anything—it gets weak. That’s what is happening to our land, they drill, blowing up land for mines, they are making our land weak. Just like you if your arm broke you won’t be as strong as if you had 2 arms.” – Deninu Kue First Nation.

Because of changes to water quality, people must now purchase water:

“Long time ago water was good. We used to drink water from the shore. Since 1950 we don’t drink water from the shore anymore. In 1944 we lived at Burwash, I hauled water for my dad. Since 1950 water has not been good, we moved across, until this day we pay for water, before that we use to take water from the shore and drink water.” – Yellowknives Dene First Nations.

Preserving healthy drinking water
Despite these concerns, there are many areas where the water is still drinkable in Great Slave Lake and Artillery Lake, according to community members in Łutsel K’e.

“And the water [in Artillery Lake] is just pristine and the land is the same way. It is still clean. That’s how the people kept the land. Clean. Make sure it’s kept like that.” – Albert Boucher

Not only is Artillery Lake important to the Łutsel K’e Denesoline, but so are Fort Reliance, Lady of the Falls in the Lockhart River, and Pike’s Portage, among others. Maintaining the health of the water in those areas is of paramount importance to the community.

To protect the water from toxins associated with resource extraction, Łutsel K’e Dene First Nation is negotiating the creation of Thaidene Nene (Land of the Ancestors)—a national and territorial park. The park would protect Indigenous rights to fishing, hunting, trapping, and gathering, while also protecting the water

The upper Kátł’odeh is a very important river for both the Dene Tha’ and K’atl’odeeche First Nation. Community members consistently express the negative impacts of oil and gas development on water sources, as well as the need to protect clean water sources that still exist.

Impacts of oil and gas development
It is clear to many that the water in the Kátł’odeh is not as clean and healthy as it once was. Some community members express concern with oil and gas development, which is not accountable to the communities living on the river downstream.

“Probably oil spill goes into the creek, goes into the river… well that’s no good for fish… If something like that happened in Bistcho it is going to go right down to Eskimo country… it is no good for the people drinking the water… The [company] people they don’t care because what they want is money, money…they don’t care about the [Dene] people.” – William, K’atl’odeeche First Nation

Muskeg and spring water
Dene people continue to use muskeg and spring water, sources of clean, taste-free water. Due to their clear look and clean taste, these water sources are used to measure the quality of other water sources, such as the river. While people would do their washing in the Kátł’odeh, they would not drink or cook with it.

Using alternative sources of water
Instead of the river water, many Dene people purchase water in High Level – a costly alternative.

“Yeah that is what we used to drink, river water, but now you can’t… mainly when you visit today you see a whole bunch of those big blue jugs and that’s what they get it from High Level they have to buy water.” – Elaine, K’atl’odeeche First Nation

For the health of communities, it is imperative to maintain the integrity of the muskeg and springs as sources of clean water.

Water in and around the Liard River is held in high regard, and water conservation is of utmost importance for the surrounding communities. The Dena Kayeh Institute of the Kaska Dena is setting up a community water monitoring program as part of setting up a Guardian program on their traditional lands.

Tāghʼagah Tuēh = Liard River (big water shimmering in the distance with big banks)

Combination of indicators
Community water monitoring on the Liard combines western scientific metrics with Elder knowledge and the Kaska language to study water health. Young people are part of this process to ensure that knowledge is passed down.

Tracking indicators over time
Community knowledge of water sampling is key to this project. Community members collect and store baseline water quality data for high-priority bodies of water. A baseline enables the community to track changes in the health of the water over time.

In the Peace River sub-basin, industrial development has impacted water quality, affecting the health of the water and people who rely on the water.

Impacts of toxins
Industrial development has seen an increase in toxins in the Peace River. Community members notice the impacts of toxins, which make people in the surrounding communities sick and afraid of the water. Toxins also affect the life in lakes, making them appear “dead”:

“I remember as a kid I could smell the water, I could hear the roar of the waves, you don’t hear that no more. It is a dead lake. Like dead in comparison to what I remember, you know there is a lot of algae, we can’t drink the water, when I was a kid I used to go down the lake and pail the water, we can’t do that anymore. Our creeks, rivers they all have some kind of chemicals flowing down them, you are scared to drink it, you have to boil the water, make tea to have a drink before you go into the bush and can drink water right out the creek and the river.” – Sucker Creek First Nation

Downstream, communities notice toxic effects of the Bennett Dam.

“When [the] Bennett Dam started, losing the water, there’s no more fresh water that comes in. Like every 4 years we used to have fresh water. We used to have ice jams, and clear out all the bad water, clean everything out, strain it out and then clean water would come in. We don’t see that anymore after the Bennett Dam. Before that, we used to have lots of clean water that would come in. You don’t have to pack water like today. Out there you got fresh water all the time and that’s what.” – Misikew Elder

Future water health
Community members recognize that industry has long-term impacts on the water. They therefore express concerns over how current developments will affect them in the future. Protection and preservation of the water will enable the water to heal:

“The only way the lake will rectify the damage that was done is to leave it; it will heal itself.” – Sucker Creek First Nation

Thirty to fifty years ago, people could drink straight from the Peel River and nearby lakes. Now, communities along the Peel, including Nacho Nayak Dun First Nation and downstream communities at Inuvik, have noticed changes in water quality over time. 

Downstream cumulative impacts

Down the Peel River near Inuvik, many factors combine to make drinking water unsafe. These include:

• A red/orange dust like substance that has been seen running down the Peel River and a brown film on the water
• Contaminants from industrial developments upstream
• Effects of animal life, including beaver dams and the guano of geese and swans guano, 
• Muddier water
• Lead or zinc in rivers

Indigenous knowledge and scientific sampling

Scientific sampling is combined with Indigenous knowledge to understand the health of the Peel. For example, in Nacho Nayak Dun, water quality indicators have also been monitored for several years, including the presence of sediments, perceptions of contaminants by community members, water levels, and water access. Water monitoring helps ensure the safety of water, which is important for livelihoods, culture, and the economy in this community.

“When I boat, I feel the change, I feel something changing. Like, land … it is changing. When I boat the air is cold.” – JK, Hatchet Lake First Nation

Community members across the Athabasca are noticing changes to the land and wildlife, including decreased water levels.

“Water level [has] changed. Land [has] also changed. …[there are] strong winds and more rain now.” – PJD, Hatchet Lake First Nation

Development contributes to decreasing water levels
Decreasing water levels are profoundly impacting life on the Athabasca. It is becoming more difficult to reach traditional use areas.

The effects of industrial development combine with climate effects to reduce water levels. Both hydroelectric development and water withdrawals for tar sands development profoundly affect water access for members of the Mikisew Cree First Nation.

The Prince Albert Grand Council also reports significant water level fluctuations due to upstream hydroelectric projects in British Columbia.

Wildlife is impacted too
The drying land is making the land inhospitable for moose.

“There are a lot of salt licks and plants and moose habitat that are really important. They are going to dry up all those areas and the moose will move away. The moose are right down to nothing now. You would be lucky now to see a moose anywhere when you are travelling.” – Lesser Slave Lake Elder

Wildlife of all kinds are also impacted by toxins released by development projects. Community-based monitoring, carried out by the Mikisew Cree, has noted oiled ducks, dead and deformed fish, rabbits with extra genitals, and muskrats, otters, beavers, fox, and mink which were found dead for no apparent reason. They have also recorded and sampled large die-offs of seagulls and fish. Muskrats also contain high levels of mercury, as well as parasites.

Some animals are seeking safety in farmer’s fields, where they are not accessible to harvesters.

“If you find a track and you want to find that moose, you should look at the track closely. It was probably there from last year. If I shoot a moose on the farmer’s field, they could put me in jail. There are moose and elk in some areas north of Millet and south of Edmonton. All those farmers will throw you in jail if you shoot them. The animals are leaving the bush because it’s safer on the farmer’s fields.” – Lesser Slave Lake Elder.

Significant changes to the land are interconnected. They affect waterways, human life, and wildlife populations.

Water Levels are Decreasing
In many places across the Great Bear watershed, water levels are going down and sand bars are increasing. Both lakes and rivers are changing.

“In the last 10 or 20 years, the water level has changed dramatically. There have been some springs where the Nahanni River has almost dried up to a trickle, where the river itself is only ten feet wide, and that was all the water that was coming down, and that was before the spring run on. So, elders have noticed this change as well, and they do bring it up a lot. In the fall time, when the water level drops, it drops a lot, more than it did 20 years ago, and they’re also noticing that change. That’s a big issue for us.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant

Riverbanks are eroding
Erosion has increased, which creates more sandbars, widens rivers, and lowers water levels. It results in related effects, such as cut banks, trees, shrubs, and even cabins falling into rivers. Some Elders have noticed this especially at the base of the Mackenzie Mountain Range.

“Yeah, they’re quite a bit different […] A lot less water. […] … a lot of the banks have eroded. … some … rivers got wider …but they’re shallower.” – William Storr

In some places, towns have been built very close to rivers and may be damaged in the future.

Permafrost thaw is a common argument for why erosion is occurring. The timing of these changes ranged from the 1990s to very recently.

Travel is difficult
Due to lower water levels, it is becoming harder to travel across the water and access key harvesting spots.

“But back then we used to have like a 70, or 25 you know just to go to those back lakes? Now we can’t even make it into those back lakes, because they’re, it’s either dried out, or we can’t go through a certain spot cause it’s dry. Can’t even go, we have to go a different route…” – Michelle Gruben

“We’ve been traveling down there since we were young… [we] did a lot of trips… and didn’t really worry too much about sand bars, but now we get … sand bars about in every river. You can … get around those sandbars … there’s …other ways around but … some places you can’t get to. Like Running River, they can’t use their camps there no more.” – Johnny Storr

“Well, you have a hard time to travel … for instance, last year I had traps set and, … it got big snow and … all the creeks opened up and I had a, a hard time to get to my traps… . I had to cut some trails around them […] and it really affects the muskrats and that because … there’s not that much water for them anymore […]. There used to be… lots of muskrats. But I don’t think we’ll … see … lots like … before because […] you don’t have that. The lakes are kind of shallow now. […] The whole delta is getting shallow, drier.” – Eddy Macleod

Water levels fluctuate
In a few places, water levels are fluctuating more dramatically. Lots of rain causes high water levels and floods, and then the water levels drop again. When waters are high, they fill with silt and debris, making it harder to catch fish and clean both fish and nets.

“So we never used to see … high water … in the fall or fluctuating levels in the fall… . …now sometimes we’ll have high water where it shouldn’t be high, or it should be low… and this year … with all the rain … everywhere was flooding. …as long as [there is] high water there’s lots of silt… . So as soon as you drop your net in… it’s just black and stuff just sticks to it …. Pretty hard … to catch fish like that.” – Allen Kogiak

Some impacts are human-caused
Historic seismic lines, ferries that are part of the Dempster Highway, and roads across the region may be contributing to changes in the land. Ferries, for instance, impact sedimentation.

Permafrost is thawing
In some places, as permafrost thaws, the land collapses. Many describe the appearance of sinkholes across the land, along with falling trees.

“The landscapes where [the harvesters] used to go trapping are somewhat flooded or somewhat uprooted because the permafrost is thawing and all of a sudden you’re having trees laying all over, like somebody dumped toothpicks. So, all of the trees are just uprooting. They’re just all falling down. Like when you come to the muskeg area, they used to have these big frost heaves, when you’re travelling. But all of a sudden, these frost heaves are here no more. And all of a sudden there’s big craters in the ground.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant

Others describe the land drying up. Where people could once easily cross muskeg wearing rubbers or moccasins, they now sink up to the knee in places.

Wildlife are changing
Increased beaver populations are negatively impacting water quality and drinkability, as well as fishing practices. They block creeks, changing water levels and flow.

“… in the 80s… there [were]… only so much beaver. Used to be scarce …. And now there’s so many …that … last year … they put a bounty on them ‘cause they’re almost pests.” – Dean Arey

In Tulita, drying willows have resulted in moose migrating elsewhere for the soft, mild buds they like to feed on. The faster-growing willows also make the bush too thick for people and animals to navigate on the land. Community members can only see this getting worse as temperatures warm. Moose and caribou like the cold weather. Muskox have been seen in the area in the last few years, where they haven’t been seen before. By contrast, there are fewer rabbits, birds, frogs, and even mosquitos. These changes have also been noted by communities further down the river, such as in Fort Simpson.

“We always had water, fish, animals. I remember when I was a kid setting rabbit snares anywhere…you dig a hole anywhere in the ground for water, now there is nothing, you have to dig down about 10 feet before you find any water.” – Deninu Kue First Nation

Changes to the land are interconnected in the Great Slave, where animal patterns are changing along with water and snow levels.

Water levels are decreasing
Across the Great Slave region, water levels are dropping. River currents have shifted as they become shallower and contain more sand bars.

“The current is not as strong. There used to be more whirlpools. You could throw a log in and they would get sucked down.” – Smith’s Landing First Nation

“Many people notice the disappearance of ponds, canals, and other small waterways, some of which were used for travel. The water dropped… Yeah a couple of years ago. The ponds are dried up over here [referring to the ponds around Lutsel K’e].” – Sweetgrass Cassaway

“It’s different, there’s no water. Inland lakes, sometimes you have to put branches down, make a trail to get to the lake, it’s not like before.” – Łutsel K’e Dene First Nation

In Akaitcho territory, community members notice old markings on rocks where the water levels used to be, and levels have dropped between four and ten feet lower in different locations.

Snow levels are also decreasing
People speak about how there was more snow in the past, which provided plenty of fresh water.

“It’s not the same, no snow now-a-days. Long ago there was a lot of snow. You can’t go out without snowshoes. We live in the bush most of the time, just to chop wood you need to put on snowshoe. That’s why long ago there was a lot of water; snow melts and the water was deep, now no snow, water is low on Great Slave Lake.” – Yellowknives Dene First Nation

“It went down quite a bit before but it looks like we got it back again.. In the old days, elders say we don’t get water from anywhere but the barren lands. If there’s a lot of snow in the barren lands, we get good water. Most know about that, in the barren lands, the water don’t go down. Cause’ that is where all the watershed comes from.” – Eddy Drybones & Marcel Basil

Wildlife patterns are changing too

Akaitcho members report seeing wildlife that has not been around before, such as white-tailed deer, coyotes, cougars, magpies, and crows.

Other wildlife are changing migratory patterns and habitats, with more moose in the barren lands, and musk ox in the treeline, as well as musk-ox moving further south, and trappers noticing the furs look better later in the season. These changes mean that certain forms of wildlife are decreasing in areas where they used to be common. Many people remember chasing caribou off the runway so that planes could land, or shooting caribou a few steps from their front porch.

Changes to the land are connected with changes in wildlife. People are concerned with the impacts of wildlife changes on community life, practices, food sources, and traditions. Some see wildlife changes as a reason to protect the land.

“Cause’ … a lot of the changes I’ve seen … from the animals, they’re not … around. … The mining and the cutting, trying to stop a natural disaster. Gotta protect the land, try and keep it as pristine as it was a thousand or a hundred years ago. Like how our ancestors kept it. Because the land is very important to us. The animals, we are all just a part of nature. That’s how I was taught. You have to respect nature because you can’t control the weather.” – Roger Catholique

Litter is increasing in local communities
Local communities have negative impacts on the land too. While there are concerns with industrial development and the impacts of outsiders on the land, community members in Łutsel K’e are also noticing increased litter on ancestral lands. For example, youth on a canoe trip noticed garbage and barrels near the Ni Hat’ni cabin and on the portage into Shelter Bay. Community members hope to see greater care for ancestral lands.

Even though there are many changes to the land and waters in the Hay River region, cultural sites along the river remain significant. The Dene Tha’ in particular continue to visit and maintain important sites.

Disruptions to the land
In the areas around Kátł’odeh, disruptive activities are affecting the land and wildlife. While wildlife is still abundant, poaching by Molą, noise pollution, and illegal activities are increasing the pressure on local wildlife, having effects on harvesting practices and yields. As of yet, limited oversight by Alberta Fish and Wildlife has enabled illegal activities to continue.

As with other sub-basins surrounding the Mackenzie River, the Peace River watershed has seen lower water levels. Lower water means poorer fish spawning grounds in the Peace tributaries. It also leads to a general drying of the land, leading to an increase in forest fires.

While water levels are lower overall, they also fluctuate more unpredictably, so floods and droughts are becoming more common.

Increasing forest fires
In the Peace River region, lower water levels have resulted in increased forest fires. The damming of the Peace River led to a reduction in the water table, which had prevented forest fires in the past.

Forestry affecting harvest
Industrial development and forestry in particular have had negative impacts on wildlife populations, which in turn affects harvest.

“Too much, there is too much logging, too much industry, all over… Before, when I was young, we used to go across the river and hunt…, now today, you go across the rivers, and I don’t know, you may get something, or you may not.” – Elder, Duncan’s First Nation

Concerns with future development
In the face of current and future hydroelectric projects such as Site C, community members are concerned with potential impacts on water levels and wildlife.

As the shorelines of the Peace are very sandy and silty, people fear further erosion if the valley is flooded. Erosion will be disastrous for the Peace and its tributaries with effects on water quality, fish habitat, wildlife, and community health.

“I couldn’t believe the number of eagles, bears, deer, beaver and other wildlife. The number of eagle nests is what stood out for me most. The wildlife is still abundant and I can’t believe they’re willing to flood this all out.” – Della Owens, Saulteau First Nation Elder

There are also ancestral gravesites in the Peace River valley and numerous archaeological sites yet to be looked at. It is important to communities to protect these sacred sites.

In the Peel River region, changes to the land are linked to human causes, as well as changes in climate. Community members across the Peel region are noticing increased erosion, leading to banks and trees falling into rivers, increased landslides, thaw slumps (or “sinkholes”), and muddier water.

Climate change

Some community members attribute these changes to warming temperatures and thawing permafrost.

Human development and infrastructure

Current and historic human activities also contribute to changes in the land. Historic seismic lines and more current development of roads are changing the landscape. 

The Athabasca River is profoundly impacted by water withdrawals from hydroelectric dams. Reduced water levels are also compounded by climate change.

Decreasing water levels and changes in the flow of the Athabasca River have been so significant that community members have developed technologies that support safe travel. These tools help people adapt to rapid changes in the water, enable safe water travel, and support community members’ abilities to carry out Treaty and Aboriginal Rights.

Aboriginal Base Flow
The Aboriginal Base Flow has been defined by local people as the level of the Athabasca River and nearby streams that will enable them to navigate the river channels safely.

Together, members of the Mikisew Cree and Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation have determined a minimum depth needed to move through channels where low water restricts access to traditional use. This depth was estimated at 4 feet – which is also the amount of water needed to get on a step with a harvested moose in a boat.

Both Indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge are used to calculate the Aboriginal Base Flow.

Navigational Hazard App
As current management of river levels by industry and government does not promote safety or protect Treaty and Aboriginal Rights, the Mikisew Cree First Nation has developed independent adaptation plans.

As an example, a Navigational Hazard App enables Community Based Monitoring staff to update a database of navigational hazards. People can use smart phones or tablets to access this data in order to safely travel in the Peace Athabasca Delta. This information is key for community travel safety and real time conditions on the river.

The aim is to link the app with other tools, including additional Community Based Monitoring, revised policies to water levels/use, and dredging, to more effectively manage water levels. Information from the app could also support the provincial government with better data about water levels in order to refine future policies.

“But now I notice it’s not as strong as it used to be. And the water there is … getting shallower… I used to find that when the nets were lower in the water… we get more char…
But with the water being so low … it’s changed… the eddy’s not where it used to be. Lot of erosion.” – Cheryl Arey

Traveling on the land is an important issue in the Great Bear watershed. With lower water levels come more obstacles, including sandbars, stumps in the water, and lack of access to portages. Changes also make travel unpredictable, and people can no longer rely on the travel routes and knowledge that were used in the past.

Sandbars
Lower water levels and increased erosion due to permafrost thaw have led to more sandbars in rivers and lakes. Sandbars become obstacles for boaters, who find conditions unpredictable and hazardous. To travel on the water means risk of a boating accident.

“… we hit a sand bar and had to jump out of the boat and … rock the boat off […] ‘Til we got off. It’s really different compared to long ago. In the ‘50s, ‘60s, ‘70s even big boats used to be going back and forth… now they can’t…. the rivers are no longer rivers and lot of sandbars.” – Renie Arey

Changes to the water also make it difficult for people to rely on long-term river knowledge.

“People would travel by boat in the dark a lot, and they memorized the locations of rocks so they could avoid them in the dark. Water level changes are affecting this ability to safely travel at night by changing where the rocks are in the water.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant

Sandbars and drying lakes make travel not only unsafe but also impossible. This forces people to find new routes.

“Now we can’t even make it into those back lakes… they’re… either dried out.. or we can’t go through… have to go a different route.” – Michelle Gruben

Losing portages
Willows are growing along channels, not only making them narrower but also making it harder to maintain portages.

Changing ice and winter roads
In the last 5 to 10 years, reduced ice thickness has made it less safe to travel in some places.

Due to climate change, winter roads are taking longer to form and break up earlier. Also, the ice does not freeze as thick, and it melts earlier and faster than in the past. Some people notice that melt is happening from the top of the ice but also from underneath.

“It’s really dangerous to go out in the winter time because it’s not freezing as much anymore…. The ground where the people want to go can’t freeze anymore. Even right now its -33 [but] there’s some places they can’t go right now because it’s not freezing.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant

There are also changes in the way the ice freezes close to shore, making it impossible to travel along the shore during winter.

“In the winter time it’s different too, because you see the ice pile up on the Mackenzie. Like last year on the Mackenzie…you could actually take a skidoo right from here and right to Rabbit Skin and drive along the shoreline, just nice and flat. But this year the ice is just piled up like humongous, like mountains along the way, so it’s pretty hard to follow the shoreline nowadays.” – Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant

It is difficult for travellers to rely on the ice for travel and for use near home. Travellers must check the ice before crossing lakes and be attentive to the ice when passing over.

Staying safe through local knowledge
In order to travel safely, local people emphasize the importance of paying attention to current local river knowledge.

Changes to the ice in the winter and water levels in the summer are making travel dangerous across the Great Slave watershed. These hazards are leading to changes in travel routes, as well as hunting and trapping practices. To manage change, community members recommend youth take advantage of new technologies that will support safe travel.

Thinning and unstable ice
Akaitcho members have noticed thinner ice all around the lake and on the river. Members of the Łutsel K’e Dene First Nation remember a time when the ice was 6-8 feet thick in places. Now, it rarely gets thicker than 3-4 feet.

“You gotta test the ice wherever you go, with weather changing so fast, climate change, it’s a lot warmer now this time of year, ice is thinner than it used to be, dangerous for travel you know.” – Łutsel K’e Dene First Nation

There are also more air pockets in the ice, making it unstable. These changes make travel unpredictable and dangerous. The Site C dam may make ice more hazardous for those on the Slave River. Release of water from the dam can cause “double ice,” where there is a gap between the levels of ice.

Shorter ice season
The ice is freezing later and breaking up sooner. This shorter ice coverage season brings travel concerns. It also limits hunting in spring and fall and changes the trapping season.

Safe but difficult travel
In places where there is still lots of snow and ice, the snow does not pack the same. There are no hard snowdrifts anymore. While it may still be safe to cross, it is hard to walk on in snowshoes and hard for dogs to travel.

Increased reefs and sandbars
In the summer, travelling on the water is also difficult and unsafe. Lower water levels have led to more sandbars and reefs near the surface of the water, which are hazardous to boats. For those on the Slave River, these effects may be compounded once the Site C dam is built.

Staying safe requires new knowledge
Routes that were once safe are no longer so. This makes passing on historic knowledge to young people difficult, as it may not be relevant. Guides in Łutsel K’e recognize that youth may need to start using technology to map reefs and select newer, safer travel routes through deeper waters.

The Peel River watershed is also experiencing lower water levels and increased sandbars. These unexpected hazards make the river unfamiliar to community members and unsafe to travel.

“We noticed some sand bars are starting to show up that we’ve never seen before. Even down here ah, sand bars starting to show up in the river and the fish is getting soft too. Never see sand bars coming up like that around here.” – Lorraine Francis, 8 Miles

The health of Athabasca communities is linked with the health of the water. In the Denesuline worldview, the lakes, rivers, land, animals, plants, and people are interdependent. When one aspect of the natural world is disrupted, there are domino effects.

Fish health impacts community health
Mercury advisories in Lake Athabasca limit consumption of gull and tern eggs, a common part of Mikisew Cree diets. For a remote community with high costs of living, increasing levels of mercury affect food security due to the high costs of store-bought food. People have few options for healthy, sustainable, and cost-effective food.

Health is intergenerational
The health of people now is connected to those who came before and those who will come after. Elder Bert Herman from La Loche says that the teachings of the old people must be passed on from generation to generation:

“Our Elders taught us to respect our lands and what it provides for us, in Dene we say “nuhech’alanie,” the life path that all of us walk on. We are taught those ways from a young age and carry on those ways for the rest of our lives. We make sure that when we take anything from the land, we do not take it all, we also do not destroy the land so that nothing can live on it. The land is who we are, we come from the land and we go back to the land when our journey here is done, this is the Dene way.” – Bert Herman, Echodh

Healthy communities can learn from intergenerational knowledge
Dene peoples have been protectors of their waters and lands from the beginning of time, and their knowledge has deep roots in history. They know firsthand when there are changes on the lands and lakes, and they know how to adapt.

“There are many changes these days. It is not the same as when we first moved here back in the old days. In those days, the weather was calm, you can hear what is happening across the bay because it was that calm on the lake. Nowadays, the lake is always rough and have huge waves since people started commercial fishing and outsiders come in. The lake is reacting to strangers on the lake, is what we believe. …. So, yes, huge changes have occurred. … Even some rivers have changed and ran out of water. I don’t know why. …. When you are out on the land, you notice many things and when you do, you see the changes that have taken place. Even the animals have changed. They have changed their ways. You can’t consume most of the animals these days as we did at one time. Our people used to pass down stories to us, in one of the stories, elders predicted the land will change by doing things backwards.” – GSP, Participant, Denesuline Perspectives from the Hatchet Lake First Nation Sector Gathering

Fishing and being on the land are vital to the various communities and cultures across the Great Bear region. Diverse country food sources contribute to food security and health.

Diverse food sources
River systems in the Great Bear provide a rich source of nutrition and supply what many people need to live off the land. Fish is central to many people’s diets.

“We are very lucky in this area because we have everything: water everywhere, ocean and a lot of wildlife. So we can rely on fish, or whales, or caribou, or moose, or muskrats. We have a lot of different sources of food so we have alternatives if we have bad hunting, trapping, fishing seasons. The Inuvialuit are very resilient people and were able to survive relying on the land and everything that it provides.” – Richard Binder, Inuvik

Losing fish and fishing would negatively affect health
Many community members believe that nothing can replace fish and other country foods. Store-bought foods are expensive and undesirable.

The Fisheries Joint Management Committee, the Inuvik Hunters and Trappers Committee, and the Aklavik Hunters and Trappers Committee designed a questionnaire that asked how participants would feel if something prevented them from participating in fishing activities. Some answered that they would be:

• Devastated.. we need fish in our diet
• Sad, we rely on our fish as a food source
• Angered, […] not being able to get these foods would be a sad outcome if it could have been prevented
• Deprived from our traditional foods

Not only is fish important as a food course, but the activity of fishing is key to wellbeing, culture, and identity. Changes in waterways greatly affect people’s lives in this region.

People across the Great Slave watershed understand that the health of their communities is linked with the health of the fish and the water. Everything is interconnected. Healthy country foods and spiritual sites are inherent to community well-being.

Country foods provide food security and keep people healthy
Today as in the past, people across the Great Slave watershed rely on fish as an important source of healthy food. Store-bought options are very expensive and often less nutritious. Country foods, such as fish, are key to a healthy diet. With caribou less available, fish becomes an even more important food resource.

Reduced access to fish contributes to food insecurity.

Fishing connects people to land and culture
By fishing, people learn respect for fish, water, and other beings. Thus the health of the land is also reflected in the health of individuals and communities.

Water carries spiritual significance
Areas within this region have deep spiritual value and significance to communities.

Elders have passed on important oral histories about both Artillery Lake and Great Slave Lake. Oral histories describe “giant beavers,” the Dene giant named Hachoghe, and the spiritual site known as “Desnethch’e” or “the old lady of the falls.” The legend of the Old Lady of the Falls describes the origins and significance of the Lockhart River (Parry Falls) and Denesôåine beliefs about the land as alive. The river is not simply a resource but is alive with human characteristics—a mother figure, a nurturer.

“From what I know, the Lady of the Falls asked for beaver blood [for her soup] and she never received it. People ignored her at that time. They kind of left her behind when they were going back to Fort Reliance. And then, she decided to go to Perry Falls. She said she was going to sit there to the end of time and help people.” – Łutsel K’e Dene First Nation canoe trip participant

People show respect for the land and water not only through harvesting practices but also by giving offerings of respect, such as tobacco.

“In the olden days, our ancestors had lots of respect for the beaver lodge at Artillery Lake (edacho Tué). My grandfather used to tell me to respect the area by offering tobacco, even in winter. I remember Louis Drybones had a cabin at Artillery Lake (edacho Tué). On the way we would stop at the Beaver Lodge and he told us we would have to make offerings of respect – so we did. – Łutsel K’e Dene First Nation canoe trip participant

Communities are resilient
People in this region are facing a fast pace of change due to the impacts of climate change and industrial development. Elders participating in the Akaitcho Territory Government (ATG) workshops expressed how Indigenous peoples are adaptive and resilient. Over generations, they have adapted to the land.

“We’ve been taught in school about how we ‘survived.’ I contest that in our language there is no word for ‘survival.’ I always talk about aboriginal beliefs, knowledge and skills. They came from the land, we applied what the land taught us to apply. There was no survival on the land. Aboriginal people were thriving on the land. Now we are surviving. We didn’t struggle to survive before, today we struggle to survive. Because our capacity as aboriginal people has been taken away from us, today we struggle to survive. Water is becoming scarce because water is scarce animals are becoming scarce.” – Chief Roy Fabian

Health of the Kátł’odeh is tied to the health of the people
The upper Kátł’odeh continues to be a very important river for both the Dene Tha’ and K’atl’odeeche First Nations, including for ceremony, travel, harvesting, water use, occupancy, and cultural sites. While people continue to visit and maintain significant sites, Elders desire increased control over the management of their traditional lands and waters.

Decision-making authority supports community health
Harvesters express a lack of autonomy, feeling scrutinized and controlled by state management of the land. As a result, people feel like they cannot thrive but merely survive.

“There are more and more clear cuts and once that happens the streams and lakes are no good. Pretty soon there will be nothing left. The government doesn’t even care. It’s all about the money. It doesn’t matter if we try and protest. The only thing we can do is go with the flow and try to survive, that is what my dad taught me—go with the flow and try and survive. We have cut down on our hunting, we have cut down on our fishing. What else can we do? There are lots of people who don’t even go out any more; there is too much trouble with fish and wildlife officers. People used to be able to go out and camp and enjoy life, and get food from the land, but now the fish and wildlife people will chase you down and ask you what you are doing. If the Natives are camping anywhere around here, they will come find you and push you around. I say, “I am coming to the bush to go shopping for meat for my family. I don’t bother you if you go shopping at IGA and try and buy a side of beef.” It’s the same situation.” – Treaty 8 First Nations of Alberta workshop participant

Elders similarly express deep frustration over losing decision-making authority over their traditional lands and waters, which decreases their ability to properly protect the land and carry out traditional activities. Promotion of community health therefore means transformation in relations with the Canadian government is needed:

“To me, the Indian Act only applies on the reserve. My rights outside of the reserve are 100% what my forefathers did on the land. We don’t want the Indian Act to tell us how to live. We don’t want to get rid of it— we want to change it, we want to change our relationship with the Indian Act. It’s an important relationship. When we made treaty with Canada, Canada had to come up with policy and a way to implement the Treaty. They did it all wrong, but as Aboriginal people – outside the reserve we don’t have to follow the Indian Act. We need to clarify those issues. We need to make sure we don’t misrepresent who we are. This is going to be about us, as Treaty 8 People.” – Chief Roy Fabian

With greater decision-making power, Elders hope to see their communities thrive.

In the Peace River region, healthy water is key to community health – now and for the future.

“Water is the most important thing in our communities. Trying to protect is so important to our land and to our people. Not one person can say they can live without water – we all need it. We have to protect it for our future generations. We have to try our best to protect our water for us and our land.” – Chief Lynette Tsakoza

Industrial development and community health
Industrial and hydroelectric development negatively affects community health by threatening food security and leading to health problems. When wild meat is unsafe to eat, people purchase the food they can afford. Affordable food is not always healthy, and communities see an increase in diabetes and other health issues.

“Because of these industries and everything else we don’t consume our wild meats and things. Now we go to the canned meat, ok now. Changing so much on the diet, our diet, consuming all these stuff that is in a can, people are getting diabetes, more and more all the time, whereas before there was none that I know of,… no I don’t think [there was] diabetes[a] long time [ago]. Now what’s happening, cancer, that comes from our diet, that’s where it comes from. The big change in diet, that’s where it comes from, diabetes, cancer and whatever else we have right now. Even the kids born kind of deformed … some places and everything else… right now that’s because the stuff they eat, the diet.” – Elder, Swan River First Nation

Healthy water, along with sustainable and affordable food sources, are key to community health.

Fish are deeply connected with well-being for people in the Peel River region. 

Despite changes to the land and water that are making it harder for people to access fish, fish still contribute to health and well-being for communities along the Peel. Research by the Gwich’in Renewable Resources Board shows that factors like sharing networks, adaptive practices, and land-based education ensure ongoing access to fish.

“Back in the day, our ancestors respected the land. We respected the land and we pay the land and water. Nothing was wasted nor destroyed. We used to use caches, …. We survived by those caches. We have cultural things happening, we should use at least three elders to teach our ways. Even our language is changing. At cultural events, we see and hear young people’s language. Their language has changed. … We teach them proper way to saying words in Dene. English language is strong now.” – GSP

Cree and Dene Elders across the Athabasca region recognize the need to pass on guiding principles, skills, and traditions to young people while also supporting the learning of new technologies and western science.

Guiding principles
Guiding principles are teachings that are passed on from generation to generation. They are taught by Elders, parents, and community members. Some guiding principles are common across various First Nations or Indigenous groups.

Many youths do not know their guiding principles or their traditions, ceremonies, and teachings of stewardship.

Language adaptation
As more young people are speaking English, parents have had to adapt their teachings to English. Some use both English and Dene or Cree. While some people believe that translating guiding principles into English is the best way to move forward, others are working to revitalize their languages.

Formal education
In order to support philosophical and spiritual teachings, Denesuline members believe it is critical to reorient K-12 schools, outreach programs, and post-secondary education around their guiding principles. Curriculum development is key to ensuring knowledge is preserved and passed on.

The goal is to reclaim, re-teach, and re-orient people to their Dene worldview and practices to honour who they are. Traditional land users and Elders—both women and men—are essential in this ongoing work.

Mikisew Cree similarly want resources dedicated to building a curriculum that integrates traditional activities with environmental sciences in the school. Elders could regularly participate in schools, especially to share knowledge of harvest and cultural understandings of the land.

Future implications
If young people are to impact the future of the Athabasca region, they need to be prepared with skills and knowledge about stewardship to share with scientists and external people who come to live near the Athabasca.

“I’d love to see more of these camps, having them in different parts of the Delta, with different groups of people, then you could hear different stories. It gets people more engaged with being on the land, it gets people connected with the land, especially the young people. That’s important. We need to let our young people know, this is what is happening, and they too need to stand up.” – Mikisew Elder

The youth quickly adapt to new technology, and the Mikisew Cree hopes to see young people get involved with technological community-based monitoring (e.g. the Navigation Hazards App).

“I guess my generation, we grew up on fish basically, it was the main diet. And I’ve noticed over the years that a lot of young people don’t eat fish…. Elders tell us that if you eat lots of fish you’re more energetic. You’re actually stronger. And if you eat a lot of fish you don’t feel the cold. Because we got seven months of winter in our country here. So, I think those kind of points and information people need to know. We should share that.”
– Dehcho K’ehodi Program participant

Fishing is important to people’s way of life in the Great Bear region, and to the health of its people. Knowledge sharing about the land supports traditional activities such as fishing and ensures the health of communities moving forward.

Youth are future stewards of the land
Knowledge sharing and relationship building between generations is central to youth development in the Great Bear region. This learning strengthens youth understanding of culture and history. It also provides young people with skills in traditional subsistence harvesting.

Elders recognize that young people are the future stewards of the land and teachers in their communities.

Lack of land-based knowledge in youth
Some Elders attribute young people’s lack of land based knowledge to the fact that parents and communities are not teaching youth about fishing. Others describe the impact of residential schools on knowledge loss.

Young are struggling to integrate traditional knowledge in a western world
As part of an on-the-land school in the Sahtu region, youth emphasized the importance of learning from their own Elders about Dene values, identity, language and culture.

One young person spoke about feeling out of place within a western school system. He left school to learn traditional skills from his grandfather. He continues to live on the land, trapping and harvesting.

Another young person decided to pursue western post-secondary education, but she has found it difficult to integrate the two ways of knowing.

“We have to learn both ways at once,” she said “so that it doesn’t take us two lifetimes to figure out who we are.” – Tracking Change Report, 2017, p. 28

Youth learning takes many forms
Gwich’in and Dene youth from across the Great Bear region have been involved in a number of research and other learning activities:

• Interviewing
• Mapping information
• Operating cameras (video and photo)
• Locating traditional fishing lakes
• Fish monitoring
• GPS

During river trips, fish camps, and on-the-land schools, youth heard from Elders about their lives, traditions, and changes they have experienced. Youth also learned more about place names to better understand the unique relationship that their families have had and continue to have with the land.

Community members have two aims for youth: to pass on important components of culture and support youth in adapting in the future.

“You know, all the stories about the old day, but you can’t think about that all the time. You gotta think about the new ways. – Eddy Drybones

Knowledge sharing is a way to ensure the future health of communities and fishing livelihoods. However, consumerism and language barriers are making it difficult for intergenerational knowledge sharing. Despite these challenges, youth are interested in connecting with their cultures and Elders. On-the-land learning supports the knowledge sharing that communities want.

Youth and healthy futures
Elders hope to convey knowledge to youth that will help ensure healthy futures.

As an example, the Tłı̨chǫ want to ensure the future health of fisheries by passing on traditional laws for travelling on the land and respecting the fish and water. So, Tłı̨chǫ youth learn all of the activities involved in the fishery: placing nets, processing ıwe, learning place names for good fishing areas, and more. They also learn Tłı̨chǫ ways of knowing – how to show respect for fish, water, and all beings, and why that is important.

In Akaitcho territory, community members are working against the helplessness that people feel due to damage done by the oil sands and other development projects. Working towards solutions and running monitoring programs with the youth is key to preventing further impacts. Youth also need to be educated on treaty rights, constitutional rights, and Aboriginal rights.

Influence of consumerism
In Łutsel K’e, Elders are worried that consumerism is pulling Denesoline away from their culture. Youth purchase an abundance of “store food” and rely on purchased gear rather than traditional skills. As youth pursue education and waged employment, their reliance on purchased goods only increases.

These changes alter the way people travel on the land:

“Back then you had to do everything by hand. You gotta take your time with it. Even landmarks, and travelling. You’ve gotta remember a lot. You’ve gotta sit, watch, listen, look closely. That’s what he tells me.” – Roger Catholique

Communication barriers
Many youth face a language barrier when talking to Elders, as many young people cannot speak their traditional language. Youth also express frustrations when they feel that their discussions with Elders are circular.

“I didn’t really pay much attention … when they’re talking in Chipewyan, but now I start to pay attention more. Because when my grandpa passed away he told me to listen to what everybody has to say in Chipewyan.” – Eric

Translation is not sufficient for knowledge sharing, though it is a good start. Rather, language learning and revitalization is important for knowledge sharing now and in the future.

Balancing western and land-based learning
Returning to the land has been one way for people to recover from the impacts of residential schools. Spending time in the bush also shows the possibilities for current youth to balance western scientific ways with ancestral knowledge on the land.

Youth are interested in combining traditional land-based learning with new technologies. Some examples include mapping techniques using modern technology like drones and GPS, small engine repair, and chainsaw use.

At the same time, youth want to know traditional survival skills that do not rely on technology. A balance of traditional and technological learning may be needed.

Youth interest
Many youth are interested in reconnecting with their culture. They also feel empowered when they learn skills and knowledge on the land.

“Makes me want to learn my culture more … to pass it down. So I could teach the youth, so they can know what’s up. I’ve always enjoyed being in the bush and being Dene and wanting to know my culture.” – Sweetgrass

Traveling on the land is not only a cultural experience but also a spiritual journey for many youth. For many youths travelling the land and water near Lutsel K’e enabled them to pay respects to Elders who had passed. It also helped youth reconnect with family and develop pride in ancestral lands. Being on the land had a stronger impact than learning from stories.

“Last time I talked to my grandfather I told him I was going on this canoe trip and he was really happy for me. Yeah. So does it almost feel like this was a way to like connect with your grandpa, or to like… Yeah, cause his grave’s here.” – Anonymous

“… my dad would tell me ‘this where I went hunting once’ or ‘this is where they stop when they go.’ That is usually about it. I would see them as pretty interesting. Knowing where he’d been. Feeling like I’d been there too with him.” – AJ

Consulting with youth on what they hope to learn may best motivate and support their learning.

Dene Tha’ Elders feel they have lost considerable control over the management of their traditional lands and waters and that affects their ability to properly protect the land and carry out their traditional activities. This is a source of deep frustration.

Passing knowledge to young people is one key way to address this issue.

Young people enjoy learning
Travelling together on the river with Elders, young people enjoy learning about their heritage, history, and values.

“Sometimes when we went for a long time I was tired, but I still liked it… The beavers and stuff and then the tea dance place, that was awesome… I like visiting the graves and giving them tobacco…” – Brooklyn

“It’s nice, great stories too, meet new people, nice elders, they are cool, they are funny… I’m just enjoying the day…” – Bradley

“I had fun on this trip and I learned new things… I learned we have some family from everywhere…” – Tia

Travelling slowly builds community
Paddling down the river in a small group of Elders/harvesters and youth of mixed genders enabled bonds to form.

One-on-one and small group mentoring helped young people learn skills in a cultural context. They also began to form their own connections to the land and water.

The Dena Kayeh Institute of the Kaska Dena prioritized youth as they set up a community water monitoring program. This program is part of the community’s efforts to establish a Guardian program on their traditional lands.

The aim was for intergenerational knowledge sharing as youth and Elders together accompanied water monitoring teams. To support future knowledge transfer, Kaska terminology regarding water and surrounding environment was recorded and stored in a database.

The Dena Keya Institute continues to work hard to develop a guardian program, and the engagement of youth across the Kaska Territory will be key to ensure knowledge transfer not only from Elders but from current members of the Dane nan ye dah.

“The Peace is everything for us. It’s the historic river that gave birth to our treaty. It
brought the treaty together. We will be lost without that river. All of our rivers are tied into it.” – Naomi Owens, B.Sci. SFN Land Use Manager

The health of future communities along the Peace River is of deep concern. The changes expected from Site C, a third hydroelectric project on the Peace River, will be devastating to the land and communities in this region. Promoting good stewardship principles, healthy ecosystems, and spiritual ties with the land and water are important for supporting youth into the future.

Connecting youth to the river
With the potential loss of traditional and current life on the Peace River immanent, it is imperative that community members share the significance of this river with young people.

The Eagle Island Fish Camp enabled youth to spend time on the river with Elders and mentors before such opportunities are lost forever. At the camp, youth recreated some traditional fishing methods and made fish weirs and traps with natural fibres. They also learned the Cree names for fish, and the aim was also to share Dene Za names (but the Elder was unable to attend). Youth practiced talking circles, ceremonies, protocols, and traditional hand games.

“It was good to see the youth interacting with the older generations. It’s important that the traditional teachings continue to be transferred from generation to generation in the proper way!” – Chief Roland Willson, West Moberly First Nation

Promoting scientific learning
Youth also gained hands-on knowledge on the biology and ecology of the river. They learned about current threats such as mercury contamination, along with the importance of fish populations in the river system and to the surrounding communities.

Teaching youth as a way of reclaiming knowledge
Much knowledge of pre-European fishing methods has been lost, but Treaty 8 fishers have been using netting methods for several generations and some fish trapping methods. The Eagle Island Fish Camp supported the rejuvenation of historical knowledge about fishing gear and practices while creating an opportunity for youth to learn related knowledge and skills.

Traditional knowledge and modern scientific research are both important in Nacho Nayak Dun youth education.

Traditional knowledge
At a Traditional Knowledge Camp, youth learned from Elder Jimmy Johnny and an experienced guide. Following historic trails and visiting Nacho Nayak Dun campsites, youth foraged for berries and traditional medicines, and they learned how to subsist on fish and wildlife. Culture and knowledge sharing were central to their travels.

Western science
Youth also learned modern scientific research practices, such as water sampling of major drainages in the Peel watershed.

Youth as knowledge sharers
In addition to learning, youth also shared their knowledge in return. Telling stories and presenting a slideshow, youth communicated what they learned upon return. They also responded to questions by community members. By sharing their knowledge, youth developed confidence and reinforced their learning in a community context.

Involving fishers in information gathering is key to the future health of communities in the Brazilian Amazon. Where the government does not sufficiently monitor, participatory research methods may collaborate with fishers to impact decision-making.

Listening to fishers
A variety of methods enable fishers to share information. These include interviews with fishers, data collected by fishers at fish landings (for example, weighing catches), mapping of fish migrations and reproductive patterns, and fisheries monitoring.

When researchers work together with fishers, community members develop monitoring skills that can be passed on to others.

Digital tools are enabling better communication between fishers and researchers. Digital records enable quick communication between fishers and researchers. Digital photos may identify fish not previously sampled or known in the region. Photos also enable communication between fishers and biologists, who may use different names for fish.

Considering downstream impacts
For projects such as the São Luiz do Tapajós Dam, assessments should consider the socio-ecological impacts on communities far downstream. This includes cumulative impacts.

Participatory monitoring is a good way to record fish landings in multiple communities scattered in remote places, which is beyond the capacity of the national or regional government.

Because community fisheries differ along the lower and middle Tapajós, mitigation measures must be tailored to each community’s needs.

Nothing for commercial fishing. The store buyer in Prince Albert has closed and also our local fish plant. But for fishing to eat, it is our treaty right and we continue to practice that right. George also talked about his encounter with a conservation officer threatening him about fishing a while back. – GSP

On-going, multi-year projects are needed to monitor lands, lakes, and rivers in the Athabasca region, which has been significantly impacted by industrial development.

Community-based monitoring
To address ongoing issues, the Athabasca region has a long history of community-based monitoring.

For example, Elders helped develop the Mikisew Cree Community Based Monitoring (CBM) program to track negative changes that Elders were already noticing. The program brought together fish scientists and Elders in order to co-develop a culturally and scientifically relevant monitoring methodology, ultimately designed to protect Mikisew rights.

The CBM staff regularly monitor water quality and quantity of water at established sites. Findings show that low water significantly limits access to traditional sites. The program also samples fish, researching health implications for the consumption of foods related to a traditional diet.

As part of the CBM program, a Navigational Hazard App enables monitoring staff and community members to log potential hazards in the river using smart phone technology. This interactive app provides real time data to enable community members to safely travel in the Peace Athabasca Delta. The app will also inform ongoing monitoring, revised policies, water diversion structures, and dredging to effectively manage water levels

Training for monitoring
Capacity-building is important in environmental stewardship. Local peoples need to be trained and supported in becoming champion protectors of their lands and waters. Training of land and water guardians must include traditional ecological knowledge, western science, traditional stewardship practices, First Nations’ history, and knowledge of treaty rights and treaty relationships.

Holding government accountable
Community-based monitoring is intended to defend Aboriginal and Treaty rights with more appropriate policies in the lower Athabasca region. However, data does not appear to be informing government decisions that may prevent loss of navigability, and the increased contamination of wild foods that impact the ability of Mikisew members to exercise their rights. Rather, industry continues to be prioritized. Denesuline on the Athabasca in northern Saskatchewan have encountered similar challenges.

The future aim is to formalize the role of community-based knowledge in decision-making to give greater capacity to the First Nations and protect land, water, rights, and way of life.

Further research necessary
Many communities situated on Lake Athabasca identify a need for further research into the health of water and fish. These include Uranium City, Camsell Portage, Fond du Lac, Stony Rapids, and Hatchet Lake as well as other regions that are under the umbrella of the Prince Albert Grand Council. Evidence-based research will help communities to develop stewardship plans and articulate watershed governance.

Stewardship
Stewardship principles are central to monitoring and decision-making. Sovereignty, governance, and cultural identity are inseparable from the care and stewardship of the land, water, wild foods, and resources. Communities in the Athabasca have retained their traditional worldview that frames their culture, language, value system, and practices that reinforce sustainable stewardship practices and traditional harvesting protocols.

“Scientific research programs would be improved with more partnerships with local fishers and on the land programs. By working more closely with the local fishers we can learn more about different changes that are occurring in the ecosystem and how to improve our monitoring of these changes.” – FJMC 2016-17 Report 

In the Great Bear Region, there is a strong sense that Indigenous voices must be strengthened in watershed governance. Local and traditional knowledge can help identify the long-term patterns of cultural and ecological change. Local knowledge can show important connections between the well-being of the river system and the well-being of communities.

While there are many ways that Traditional Knowledge informs decision-making in the Great Bear region, a few examples show the diverse ways that communities are working to ensure healthy futures.

Importance of Traditional Knowledge

In the K’áhsho Got’ı̨nę District, efforts are being made to bring Traditional Knowledge to monitoring and management. These efforts seek to strengthen community leadership, including through research, monitoring, and stewardship. Community members are supported to develop and document cross-family, cross-community, and cross-regional knowledge and skills. The project documents community-based knowledge and explores community strategies for sustainable fishing.

Community knowledge is then brought to decision-making by developing water and fisheries components of the Sahtú Research and Monitoring Strategy (Nę K’ǝ Dene Ts’ı̨lı̨ – Living on the Land Forum). It also contributes to the implementation and further development of the NWT Water Strategy, which includes water-related climate change adaptation strategies.

Gathering baseline data

Baseline data is vital for understanding changes to fish health due to climate change and increased harvesting pressure by proposed commercial fisheries. To gather baseline data about broad whitefish, the Gwich’in Renewable Resources Board (GRRB) extended monitoring to the Arctic Red River at Tsiigehtchic and the Mackenzie River Delta (Peel Channel) at Aklavik in 2018/19. The project employs five harvester-collaborators and has sampled over 800 fish in the first two years, gathering key information to ensure food security for communities in the region.

Ensuring educational opportunities

In addition to monitoring, communities are working towards the future by generating interest in careers in resource management among young people. Educational opportunities like the Environment and Natural Resources Technology Program at Aurora College will provide the upcoming generation with additional knowledge to support decision-making.

Through the sharing of Traditional Knowledge, communities in the Great Slave region are determining how to deal with the problems communities face now and into the future. With stewardship and community health as priorities, local monitoring is informing co-management policies and practices.

Local monitoring

Ongoing monitoring is essential in order to address changes to the land and water, especially as future changes are still uncertain. Local monitoring builds on Elders’ and harvesters’ knowledge, along with stewardship principles of respecting fish.

A number of different monitoring programs document Traditional Knowledge. For example, communities circling the Great Slave Lake participate in the Akaitcho Aquatic Monitoring Program (AAMP). The Yellowknives Dene First Nation, Deniue Kue First Nation, and the Łútsël K’e First Nation together monitor the water and fish. While the AAMP is mainly funded by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada which requires the collection of scientific data, communities are increasingly gathering Traditional Knowledge. Part of the AAMP, the Ni Hat Ni Program uses a variety of methods of tracking the health of fish including the identification of lesions or abnormalities.

Together, communities share knowledge to identify threats, define them as natural or unnatural, and determine whether they are manageable or mitigable, or if threat mitigation would require adaptation strategies. 

Adaptive management

One model of respectful management of the fish is called adaptive management.

As an example, a man named Casey Jones opened a commercial fish plant in Whatì in 1969-70. Men set nets and fished with boats and motors, and women worked at the plant cleaning fish. At this time, fish was very plentiful.

After some time, however, the Elders decided to close the plant. This was because of local monitoring based on respect for fish. Closing the plant ensured the fish could continue to thrive. This is an excellent example of adaptive management, where local monitoring leads to flexible changes in practices to support healthy futures. 

Establishing protected areas

Another way to ensure healthy harvests is to create protected areas where Indigenous peoples are free to harvest.

As one example, Łútsël K’e Dene First Nation is working to create a national and territorial park, of Thaidene Nene (Land of the Ancestors). Artillery Lake, Fort Reliance, Lady of the Falls in the Lockhart River, and Pike’s Portage, among others, are very important areas to the Łútsël K’e Denesoline. Maintaining the health of the water and fish in those areas is of paramount importance to the community. Resource extraction would be prohibited in Thaidene Nene. However, Łútsël K’e Denesoline and other Indigenous peoples would continue to be allowed to fish, hunt, trap, and gather.

Water from all sources is held in very high regard in the Liard River region, and conservation of water is a very high priority. As a result, a water monitoring program is central to community efforts to establish a Guardian program on traditional lands. 

Water sampling

In its initial year, the water monitoring program worked to develop permanent water sampling sites. At these sites, baseline water quality data was collected, stored and shared.

Site set up and data collection was conducted by the Dane nan yḗ dāh (Kaska Guardian Program) and the Dena Kayeh Institute’s Natural Resource Technicians. All were trained in water sampling methodology and protocols, swift water rescue, first aid, and data management.

Intergenerational knowledge transfer

Elders and youth were invited to participate in monitoring. Education is built into water monitoring, as a key goal is to build capacity among community members to contribute to monitoring and management in the Kaska Traditional Territory. Additionally, Kaska terminology regarding water and surrounding environment was recorded and stored in a database.

The Dena Kayeh Institute is working on to strengthen Daylu Dena Council and Dease River First Nation’s role in the management of water resources in the Kaska Traditional Territory

The research in the Mekong River Basin focuses on involving local people and local researchers in order to investigate how deep knowledge about fish and fish migrations is shared through social networks that extend over space, including across national borders and across generations. This research gives insight into how local people can impact future decision-making.

Supporting knowledge sharing
While many traditional methods, social networks, and technologies enable continued knowledge sharing across the Mekong region, this sharing is uneven.

Knowledge sharing is supported by quick travel enabled by motorized boats and land transportation, as well as to cell phone technology. Fishers share knowledge on the river, but also at social and religious events. To be part of the fishery conversation requires a person have sufficient status and social connections. Age and gender also play into these factors; for instance, older people may be unfamiliar or uncomfortable with cell phone technology that could connect them to other fishers.

Understanding how knowledge sharing works in the Mekong is key if fishers are to be consulted in decision making.

Considering political elements
Fishery decline must be attributed to political causes along with scientific causes. For instance, insufficient governmental attention is given to wild-capture fisheries in comparison with rice cultivation or aquaculture.

Expanding the borders in impact assessments
Many districts are impacted by hydroelectric projects beyond those considered during impact assessments. The impact area of the Pak Mun dam includes just three districts (Khong Chiam, Phibul Mangsahan, and Surinthon). However, many fishers in other districts have also been impacted. Therefore, the borders of assessments should be expanded to consider more widespread impacts.

“I was amazed at what beauty there was along the Peace River. We need to save the fish and the eagles and all the medicines that we gathered.” – Raymond Needlay, Ft. Nelson FN Elder

Current and future hydroelectric projects are of primary concern for communities along the Peace River. The Site C dam would be the third hydroelectric project on the Peace, bringing devastating changes to the river and surrounding communities.

Other concerns relate to increased logging, mining, petroleum, and seismic activity that are altering backcountry areas. There is no monitoring of the overall impacts that these industrial activities have on fish and wildlife. 

“The Peace is everything for us. It’s the historic river that gave birth to our treaty. It brought the treaty together. We will be lost without that river. All of our rivers are tied into it.” – Naomi Owens, B.Sci., SFN Land Use Manager

Need for comprehensive studies

Due to the multiple industrial impacts on the Peace River region, large-scale studies are needed to explore the cumulative impacts on fish and water. While project-by-project studies are conducted by companies, there are no comprehensive “big picture” studies.

Need for research on mercury levels

So far, no studies have been conducted on mercury levels of fish in the Peace tributaries. It would be very useful to know if mercury-contaminated fish are making it up the tributaries to bodies of water such as Moberly Lake, as most fish species are migratory. Such monitoring would need to continue if Site C dam is built.

Need for good stewardship

Visions for the future of the Peace River region rely on good stewardship principles and the importance of maintaining healthy ecosystems and spiritual ties with the land and waters that sustain people.

Fish monitoring has been an ongoing part of life in the Peel River region. For years, the Nacho Nyak Dun have monitored salmon and water in the Steward River Basin. Plans to similarly monitor the Peel River watershed are underway.

Monitoring multiple indicators

Community monitoring focuses on a number of indicators, including perception of fish population, total harvest, location of harvest, and observations of fish condition. Water quality and water flow indicators have also been monitored for several years, including sediments, perceptions of contaminants, water levels, ice conditions, freeze-up/break-up, and water access.

Monitoring linked with well-being

Working across the Peel and Mackenzie rivers, the Gwich’in Renewable Resource Board has identified how ecological monitoring positively impacts well-being. Monitoring typically includes sharing networks and adaptive practices that contribute to community health.

The three rivers studied by Tracking Change – the Tapajós, Tocantins and Trombetas – each have a high fish diversity, which could be threatened by hydroelectric development projects.

While the Tapajós has no dams yet, dams along the Tocantins have created stress for local communities and species. Interviews with fishers indicate potential effects of the São Luiz do Tapajós (SLT) Dam on the people living along the river.

Impacts on fish
Every community considers particular fish “priorities” for their food security and economic sustainability. Along the Tapajós, approximately one-third of the total number of prioritized fish would be affected by the SLT dam. The effects would be felt most strongly closest to the dam, but people far downstream would also be affected. All of these communities must be considered in decision-making about the dam.

Economic factors
With decreased access to fish, community members lose reduced household income and communities lose their regional economies. These losses threaten food security at the household and regional levels.

As an example, in the lower Tapajós, floodplain fish such as the Tucunare´ and Acaratinga may become more difficult to access due to changes in water levels. As a result, fishers may need to travel further to new fishing sites, increasing the fuel costs and time spent fishing. As a result, fishers’ economic revenues would decrease. The viability of the local economy would also be threatened.

Social factors
With a decrease in fish availability, people living along the Tapajós will not only lose a main source of protein but also a key source of income. As a result, many may need to change employment, which is difficult for fishers who are typically skilled in their sole occupation.

Impacts differ according to social factors such as age and gender.

Age
In the lower Tapajós, many fishers have other sources of income in addition to fishing. By contrast, in the middle Tapajós, fishers tend to be older and are more dependent on fisheries for their primary income. These differences must be considered in mitigation plans for hydroelectric development.

Gender
Most fishers are men who contribute income to the entire household. As a result, losses to fishery catches would threaten the most important, and sometimes only, source of income for local households, which typically hold more than four people.

For female fishers who are economically independent, losing their income may mean they become completely economically dependent on men.

Cultural factors
Losing fishing livelihoods results in stress to fishers and their families, whose identities and cultures are linked with fishing.

Complex spearfishing techniques have been used by Amazonian fishers for generations as a legacy of the Indigenous people. Because spearfishing techniques are commonly used in flooded areas, changes in the river due to the SLT dam could make spearfishing obsolete. This would threaten the cultural heritage of fishers.

Local people living along the Mekong River and its tributary, the Sebok River, have a deep connection to the ecosystem, as well as longstanding knowledge and practices that are critical to their fishing livelihoods.

While local people carry significant knowledge about fish migrations, this knowledge is impacted by the presence of dams, such as the Pak Mun.

Knowledge transfer interrupted
The Pak Mun dam and dams along the Sesan River have blocked fish migrations and made river transportation up and down the river more difficult, impacting local knowledge of fish migrations.

People above and below a dam do not communicate about fish migrations as much as before, since fish migrations are now limited. However, some knowledge sharing still occurs.

Impacts of dams
Local people share the impacts of dams on various components of life along the river, including:

On fisheries: The Pak Mun and Ban Ot dams have negatively impacted fisheries, but with effects on different species that migrate through the Mekong and Sebok rivers.

On livelihoods: many local people can no longer support themselves on fishing alone. These people have coped with the loss of fishing livelihoods by migrating to bigger cities to look for work, switching to manual labor for income, farming fish, purchasing fish from the market for food, and agricultural work.

On women: women carry the most household responsibilities for food collection and income generation for their families, which hydroelectric dams threaten by impacting fish populations. Typically, women living just below the Mekong dams experience a reduced quality of life after dam construction due to difficulties accessing fish for food. It is more difficult for women to recuperate from these challenges, as many programs compensate men for fishing losses.

Fishing knowledge is still important
Fishers still have key knowledge that can give insight into the impacts of dams. Fisher knowledge, combined with science and village fishcatch data through community-based impact assessments, provides information that can shape future hydroelectric development projects and also define how the current dams could better serve communities.